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Top 1 Education

Study Online or in UK. MBA, M.Sc Finance, M.Sc Marketing or LLM from top British institution. £9500 Scholarship Available. Apply today.

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Psychology Education

Oxford University. Associate's, Master's, MBA's, M phil's & Doctoral Degrees.. For those ready to take a step into the real-world.

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Grand Canyon University an Rankings

Grand Canyon University - Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees. Grand Canyon University is a college in a Christian community that provides many advantages that many other online colleges do not offer. Each student is handled individually at Grand Canyon, where a great administrative staff makes sure every need is met.

College and University Rankings

The College and university rankings are a lists of universities and liberal arts colleges in higher education.Rankings can be based on subjectively perceived "quality," on some combination of empirical statistics, or on surveys of educators, scholars, students, prospective students or others. Rankings are often consulted by prospective students and their parents in the university and college admissions process.

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Dopamine (DA)

One of the catecholamine NTM based on amines.One amine produce both excitatory and inhibitory.Post synaptic potentials depending on post-synaptic receptors.It is involved in movement, attention, learning and reinforcing effects of drugs that people tends to abuse.

Bio Synthesis
  • It is synthesized by an essential amino acid tyrosine.
  • An enzyme converts tyrosine into L-Dopa.
  • Another enzyme converts L-Dopa into Dopamine.
Figure

In liver

Tyrosine____ L-Dopa____ Dopamine____ No-epinephrine

L-Dopa

It is a biological active form of dopamine the precursor of catecholamine often used to treat for Parkinson because of its effect a dopamine agonist.

Controlling Drugs of Dopamine

1. Agonist

A drug which facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the post-synaptic cell.

2. Antagonist

A drug that oppose or inhibit the effects of a particular NTM on the post-synaptic cell.

Systems of Dopaminergic Neuron

The brain contains three important systems of dopaminergic neuron.Three systems are found in dopamine system in blood is called dopaminergic neuron system.

1. Nigrostriatal System

It means the system of neuron which originate in the substatia nigra and project their axons to neostriatum which is important part of basal ganglia involved in the control of movement.

2. Mesolimbic System

A system of dopaminergic neuron originate in the ventral tegmental area and terminating their axons in the frontal cortex, amygadala and hypo-campus.

3. Mesocortical System

The system of dopaminergic neuron originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the pre-frontal cortex located in the ventral tegmention area.These neuron effect such function as formation of short-term memory, planing preparation and problem solving.

Receptors of Dopamine

At least five types of dopamine receptors.

D1, D2, D3, D4, D5
D1 or D2 are more common receptors.

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Memory

"Memory is defined as the activity to remember past events, information and skills".
"It is a mental capacity to store and later recall or recognized events that were previously experienced".

According to Cognitive Psychologist

"Memory is perceptual mental active system that receives encode modify and retrieves information".
Types of Memory
  • Sensory Memory
  • Short-term Memory
  • Long-term Memory
1. Sensory Memory

Kind of memory which last only for mili seconds but its capacity is essentially unlimited in what may be taken.

2. Short-term Memory

Type of memory which is of limited capacity over 2-7 bits of information and degrades over a matter of seconds, if information is not transferred to a long-term memory.

3. Long-term Memory

The unlimited capacity and relatively permanent traces of memory which lasts months and years.Such ability is called long-term memory.Neuro-psychologist are more concerned with long-term memory and its disorders.

Sub-systems of Long-term Memory

1. Declarative Memory

A form of memory that is explicit verbalize and excess-able to conscious awareness.This term comes from declare which means to proclaim to announce.

Sub Types

I. Semantic Memory

It is generalized memory such as knowing the meaning of word with knowing where or when you learned that words.

II. Episodic Memory

Episodic memory is autobiographical memory that pertain to a person's particular history.When we recall specific episodes or relate an event to a particular time and place.

Brain Areas Involved in Declarative Memory

Research has implicated 3 major structures which are involved in declarative memory.

I. The 1st center around the Medial Temporal Lobe

This center is mostly consisted on the hypo-campus and medial temporal lobe.Neuro-psychologist believed periphinal and para-hypo-campus cortex's adjacent to hypocampal formation have a deep role in memory.

II. The 2nd center which is around the Diencephala

the structure of diencephla involved in memory centered around specific nuclei of the thalamus and mamillary bodies of the hypothalamus.This thalamus consist of several nuclei which the dorsal medial nucleus of the thalamus which is often implicated and korsa koffa syndrome and in some case of amnesia.

III. The Basal fore-brain

The basal fore-brain is a sub cortical part of the talencephala surrounding the inferior tips of the frontal horns and is interconnected with limbic structure, a part of limbic system. Expert suggest that extensive damage of basal fore-brain affected the memory.Another system of declarative memory is called paps circuit which is an anatomic circuit central around the hypo-campus plays a deep role in the declarative memory processing.

2. Procedural Memory

Non declarative memory include instances of perceptual stimulus response and motor learning that are not necessarily conscious or the memory demonstrated by means where by conscious awareness is not always necessarily such as skill learning and conditioning. Non declarative memory appears operate automatically.

Sub Types

I. Skill Learning

In this type subjects perform a challenging task on repeated trails in one or more.

II. Priming/Repeation

Priming is also called repeation.Priming refers to the fact that when people perceive a particular stimulus.It becomes easier for them to perceive again.

III. Conditioning

Very simple it means salivation when you see a favorite food.

Areas Neural Model for Non-declarative Memory

1. Temporal Lobe

The area of the cortex consisted on two hemispheres Right and Left.

Researchers suggest that the temporal cortex makes a significant contribution in the memory.Due to impairment of these hemispheres memory function may become disturb e.g Right temporal lobe removal patients are impaired on face recognition, spatial position and maze learning test. Left temporal lesion functional impairment can create disturbances in the recall of word's list, recall of constant diagrams, non spatial association, regulation of non sense figure, tunes and previously seen photographs.
Due to cortical cortex injuries in partial posterior or temporal lobe and occipital lobe produce long-term memory difficulties e.g color amnesia, phase amnesia, prosopagnosia, object amnesia, topographically amnesia (Inability to recall the location of the environment).Damage of cortex can calls Alzheimer's desease.

2. Amygdala

This part is composed of number of separate nuclei.Each has its specific functions and are associated emotional events.It is much involved in memory.
  • The medial nucleus
  • The lateral
  • The central nucleus
  • The basal nucleus
  • The medial nucleus is consisted on several sub nuclei that receive sensory inputs.
3. Hipocampus

Studies indicate that the damages in hypo-campus can create spatial memory e.g field difficulty of remembering ability.

4. The Periphinal Cortex

The damage to the periphinal the most lateral position of the medial temporal lobe caused visual tasks or recognition memory defects.

5. The Basal Fore-brain

The area just anterior to the hypothalamus in which polynergic fibers lie.The polynergic fibers projects to all cortical areas and provided up-to 70 percent of polynergic synapse in these areas.These cells are actively involved in memory functions.Impairments in this area creates some kind of amnesia.

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Disorders of Memory

"Memory is defined as the activity to remember past events, information and skills".

1. Amnesia

"Complete or partial loss of memory due to the psychological and neurological problems known as Amnesia".
Types

I. Anterograde Amnesia

It refers to difficulty in learning new information.A person with it can remember events that occured in the past during the time before the brain damage occured but can't retain information.He / She encounters after the damage or very very simply the loss of memory for events after Trauma or desease.Such kind of amnesia is caused by damage to the temporal lobe.
Scoville and Milner 1957 reported that lateral removal of the medial temporal lobe produce a memory impairments in human beings excluding temporal lobe dmageness of hypo-campus may became the source of such amnesia.

II. Retrograde Amnesia

Difficulty inability to recall past events.It refers to the inability to remember events that happened before the brain damage occured or in other word the loss of old memory prior to an event or illness.

2. Alzheimer Disease

"It is a neurological disorder / desease which is caused to deterioration of intellectual abilities resulting from an organic brain disorders. It is characterized by progressive loss of memory and other mental function".
Person forgets his appointments and person's names.his desease is produce by sever degeneration of hippo-campus. neo-cortex and especially the association cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes.

Factors

1. Neuritic Plaques
2. Nero Fiberi-llary Tangles

Impair memory and learning problem at all level (encoding, storage, retrieval and retention).The brain that holds previously well semantic knowledge.Information unorganized associational frame work begin to deteriorate.

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Peptides

A type of compound from of a number of amino-acid molecule linked together can be regarded as "formed by a reaction of a carboxyl group of amino-acid reacts with the amino-acid groups of another amino-acid with elimination water. The linked b/w amino-acid called peptide bonds".

Many peptide procedure by cell of brain serve as NTM, neuro=-modulators or hormone protein.All peptides are produced from precursor molecules.Peptides are released from all parts of the terminal button into the synaptic cleft by neuron.

Function

Peptides play a primary role in chemical transmitting information in the nervous system and are active in other process of body.

Bio Synthesis
  • Peptide from precursor molecules.
  • These precursor are broken into pieces by special enzymes.
  • Synthesis of peptides takes place in the soma.These chemicals must be delivered to the terminal buttons.
Families of Peptides

1. Endogenous Opioid

These drugs reduce pain because they have direct effect on the brain.

2. Enkephalins Receptors

Pert, Snowman and Synder (1974) are discovered the localized region which carry the several receptors which respond to Opiate.These receptors are called enkephalos receptors or peptides.

Opiate Receptors

U = (mu, receptors)
D = (delta receptors)
K = (kapra receptors)

Behavioral Effects
  • It reduces pain or sensitivity to pain.
  • It is involved in species typical behavior.
  • It is responsible for regulating / controlling eating.
  • It activate thrust (angiotensin peptides).
  • It regulates urinary activities of the kidneys.

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Acetylcholine (Ach)

Acetylcholine is the primary NTM secreted by efferent axons of the central nervous system (CNS). Ach is also found at the majority of synapse where one nerve cell needs another nerve and produced Ach.These synapse are said to be acetylcholinergic synapse. They from the para-sympathetic nervous system.This chemical substance is stores in the viscles near the synapse and released when a nerve impulse arrives.

Bio Synthesis

It is composed of two components.

1. Choline

A substance derived from the breakdown of lipids.

2. Acetate (Acetic Acid)

Acetate transferred from a molecule CoA (Acetyl-CoA) which is produced by mitochondria.

Figure

CoA+Acetate____ ChAT (Choline Aceytl transferase)____ Acetylcholine (Ach)

Behavioral Effects
  • The acytlcholinergic neurons located in the dorsal lateral pons are responsible of REM (Rapid Eye Movement).
  • The neurons which are located in the basal fore-brain are involved in learning especially in perceptual learning.
  • Muscular movement is accomplished by the release of Ach.
  • The neurons which are located in the medial septum control the electrical rhythms of hyppocmpus, formate the kind of memories.
Receptors of Acytlcholine

Nicotinic Receptors

It is stimulated by nicotine (A drug found in tobacco leaves).

Muscrainic Receptors

It is stimulated by muscrainic (A drug found in the poison mushroom) (Amanita muscaria).

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Serotonin

An indolamine neurotransmitter on of the subgroup of mono-amine/amines also called 5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptamine.Its chemical name is 5-HT. It is discovered by Jouvet. It is produced by raphe nuclei near the mid brain and project axons to the cerebral cortex.
According to dictionary of biology "serotonin acts on muscles and nerves".It controls dilation and constriction of blood vessels and effects gestro intestinal tracks/region. ts also related to depression.

Bio Synthesis

The precursor of 5-HT is the amines acid tryptophan.An enzyme converts tryptophan to 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan). Another enzyme converts 5-HTP to 5-HT (serotonin).

Figure

Tryptophan_____ 5-HTP______ 5-HT.

Behavioral Effects
  • 5-HT plays a role in the regulation of mood.
  • It controls the eating, sleep and arousal activities.
  • It controls and regulate pain.
  • It is also involved in dreaming.
  • Studies indicate that suicidal depression is related to 5-HT level.
Serotonergic Neuron

The neurons are found in the nine cluster.The most of the clusters are located in the raphe nuclei of the mid brain pones and medulla.The two most important clusters are found in the dorsal and medulla.The two most important clusters are found in the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei.
Like Nor-epinephrine, 5-HT is released from varicosities. Investigators have identified nine different types of serotonin receptors.

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Nor-epinephrine (NE)

Nor-epinephrine is a catecholamines which is found in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).It is hormone produced by the adrenal medulla, the central core of the adrenal glands, located just above the kidneys. Epinephrine also serves as the NTM in brain.

Bio Synthesis

It is synthesized by an important amino acid Tyrosine. An enzyme converts it into L-dopa. another enzyme converts into dopamine and finally the dopamine converts into Nor-epinephrine with the conversion of an enzyme.

Figure

Tyrosine______ L-Dopa______ Dopamine______ Nor-epinephrine.

Systems of Noradernergic Neurons

The neurons which are attached to (NE) are known noradernergic neurons.Almost every region of the brain receives input from noradernergic neurons.The cell bodies of most of these neurons are located in the seven regions of the pons and medulla and one region of the thalamus.The cell bodies of the most important noradrenergic system begin in the locus coreuleus, a neucleus located in the dorsal pons.The axons of these neurons project to widespread regions of the brain.One effect of activation of these neurons is an increase in vigilance attentiveness to events in the environment.

Release of NE

Most neurons that released nor-epinephrine through axonal varicosities and through terminal button on the ends of axonal branches.

Noradernergic Receptors

These are several types of adernergic receptors which are synonymous to the noradernergic receptors and are sensitive to nor-epinephrine.These receptors are divided into four types which are known to be adernergic receptors or nonadernergic receptors. B1, B2, a1, a2. Found in various organs of the body and brain.

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Neuro Chemistry

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are the chemical molecules released at the synapse that in-general will either excite or inhibit a relation in the cell, on the other side of the synapse and also excite or inhibit the nerve muscles and gland cells. NTM discovered by LOWEI in 1921. NTM is a group of Amines, Amino Acids and Mono-amines.

Amines

A group of large organic compounds e.g Biogenic- Characteristics of living things through reproduction the other living things including behavior and biological system.

Amino Acids

A large group compound marked by the presence of both on Amine group and Carboxyl group, each is known to be the source of energy for metabolism and growth.

Amines group a molecule composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one nitrogen.

Carboxyl group a molecule made up of two oxygen atoms and one hydrogen atom bound to carbon atom.

Types of Amino Acids

There are two types.

1. Essential Amino acids
2. Non-Essential Amino acids

Families of Neurotransmitters

Family l
  • Acetylcholine (ACH)
  • Nor-epinephrine (NE)
  • Dopamine (DA)
  • Serotonin (5-HT)
Family ll
  • Glycerin
  • Glutamic Acid
  • Aspartic Acid
  • Gama Amino Beatrice Acid (GABA)
Family lll
  • Peptides (A Chain of Amino Acids)
Mono-amines

A class of amines that includes indolamines such as serotonin and catecholamines such as dopamine, nor-epinephrine and epinephrine.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter which is widely used in the body and neurons that release the central nervous system used Acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter.

Nor-epinephrine (NE)

It belongs to amines. it is used in the neurons that run or work to the heart blood vessels and other organs.

Dopamine (DA)

A neurotransmitter one of the catecholamines related to muscles and it controls the secretion of Pituitary gland's hormone prolaction.

Serotonin (5-HT)

An amino-acid based NTM which controls and appears in the spinal cord and the lower portion of the brain.

Glutamic Acid

It is principally found in the brain and spinal cord.It is also produces in the cell's metabolic process.It is consisted on 4 receptors.

1. NDMA Receptors
2. AMPA Receptors
3. Kainate Receptors
4. Metabotrpic Receptors

Gama Amino Beutric Acid (GABA)

It is found in the brain and spinal cord and is consisted on 2 receptors.

1. GABA-a Receptors______ control chloride channels.

2. GABA-b Receptors______ control potassium channels.

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Short Question of Neuroscience

MGM

A nucleus which transmits auditory and somatosensory information to amygadala.

EMG, EOG

EMG (Electro-myogram) These are electrodes which record the electrical potential muscles activity and placed on the chin and scalp to the electro-physiological measurements.
EOG (Electro-oculogram) These are the electrodes which are attached to the eyes and measures the eye movements.These electrodes are also attached to the EEG and monitor the electro-physiological movements of the body during sleep and wakeful conditions.

REM Sleep, N-REM Sleep

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) This is a phase of sleep in which the dreams occur and muscular paralysis occur. It is also called Paradoxical Sleep.

N-REM (Non Rapid Eye Movement)
It is called Orthodox sleep. This is the phase of sleep in which the dreams are not occur and it is consisted on Four stages of sleep e.g First to Four and Delta Theta activities are occur in this stage.

Basic Rest Activity Cycle (BRAC)

This concept was given by Kleitman 1982 which means a 90-mint cycle in (Human) Waxing and Waning alertness controlled by a Biological Clock in the caudal brain sterm. This cycle controls cycles of REM sleep and Slow Waves Sleep.

Retrograde Amnesia, Antrograde Amnesia

These are the types of Amnesia in Retrograde refers to the inability to remember events that happened before the brain damage.This occur due to Head Injury or electro convulsive shocket (ECT).

While in Antrograde Amnesia is for events that occur after some disturbance to the brain such as Head Injury or certain Degenerative Brain diseases.

Dementia and Delirium

Dementia is a Neurological disorder which is based on the progressively deterioration of Cognitive abilities resulting from the organic brain disorder.

Delirium
is also a Neurological disorder of Cloudy consciousness in which person feels difficulty in concentrating and focusing, attention and hallucinations of different kind may occur during Delirium.

Types of Thirst

Thirst is a physiological motivation and it is a tendency to seek water and to ingest it.

Thirst is divided into Two types.

Osmometric Thirst
Volumetric Thirst

Osmometric thirst produced by an increase in the osmotic pressure of the inter stital fluid relative to the Intera Cellular Fluid, thus producing cellular dehydration.

Volumetric thirst
occur when the volume of the blood plasma, the intra vascular volume decrease, This thirst can also occur due ti the loss blood, vomiting. Loss of blood volume is called Hypovolemia.
Emboli and Thrombi

Emboli is a Clot or other plug brought through the blood from a large Vessel and forced into smaller one where it obstruct circulation. It most effect the middle artery of the left side of brain.

Thrombi
is a plug or clot in a blood vessel that has coagulate and remained at the point of its formation.

Semantic and Procedural Memory

Semantic memory is a kind of memory which covers ideas, rules and general concepts about the world. It develops after the procedural memory.

While Procedural memory is defined as the memory which covers specific events, objects and situation e.g Last night which film was seen.
Antibodies, Anti-genes

Antibody is a protein produced by a cell of the immune system that recognizes anti-genes present on invading micro organism.

Anti-genes
is also a protein present on a micro organism that permits the immune system to recognize it as an invader.

B-Lymphocyte, T-Lymphocyte, B-Amyloid

B-lymphocyte is a white blood cell that originates in the bone marrow which is considerd an important part of the immune system.This is antibody.

T-lymphocyte
is a defense by the immune system which is develop in the Thymus Gland. These cells are white cells and produce antibodies.

B-amyloid is a protein found in excessive amounts in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Surface Dyslexia, Phonological Dyslexia (faulty reading)

Surface Dyslexia is a reading disorder in which a person can read words phonetically but has difficulty reading irregularly spelled words by the whole word method.

While Phonological Dyslexia is also a reading disorder in which a person can read familiar words but has difficulty in reading of unfamiliar words or pronounceable non-words.

Dysgraphia, Dyslexia

Both are associated with the reading and writing deficits.
Dysgraphia refers to writing deficit While Dyslexia refers to reading deficits.

Aphasia, Anomia

Aphasia means difficulty in producing or comprehending speech not produced by deafness or a simple motor deficit caused by brain damage.

Anomia
means difficulty in finding the appropriate word to describe an object action or attribute one of the symptoms of aphasia.

NMDA, AMPA Receptors

NMDA receptors are specialized ionotrpic glutamate receptors that controls the calcium channels that are normally blocked Mg2.

AMPA receptors
are also ionotropic glutamate receptors that controls the sodium channels.

Glucoprivation, Lippoprivation

Glucoprivation means a dramatic fall in the level of glucose available to cell.

While Lippoprivation means a dramatic fall in fatty acids available to cell.

Fasting, Absorptive Phases

Fasting phase of eating Metabolism during which nutrients are not available from the digestive system.

While Absorptive phase means a phase of metabolism during which nutrients are absorbed from the digestive system and glycogen and triglycerides occur.

Glycogen, Triglycerides

The insoluble carbohydrates is called Glycogen which is produced by liver.

While Triglycerides is a form of fat storage in adipose cells consist on three fatty acids.

Homeostasis, Endo-therm

The process by which body's substances and characteristics are maintained at their optimal level e.g temperature and glucose level etc.

While the fluctuation in the characteristics is according to required environments is called endo-therm.

Hyper-tonic, Hypo-tonic

Both concepts are associated with thirst.

Hyper-tonic is the characteristic of a solution that contains enough solute that it will draw water out of a cell placed in it trough the process of osmosis.

Hypo-tonic
the characteristic of a solution that contains so little solute that a cell placed in it will absorb water through the process of osmosis.

Sleep Apnea, Cataplexy, Narcolepsy, Insomnia

Sleep Apnea is a sleep disorder which means fall asleep and then cease to breath.

Cataplexy
is the composition of two words Kata means Down and Plexus means Stroke, so it is the symptom of Narcolepsy in which a complete paralysis occur that waking.

Narcolepsy
is sleep disorder characterized by periods of irresistible sleep , simply sleep attack in-appropriate time.

Insomnia
a general term for chronic inability to sleep normally as evidenced by difficulty in falling asleep.

Endogenous, Enkephalin Opioid

Endogenous is a class of peptides secreted by the brain that acts as opiates.

While Enkephalin is one of the endogenous opioid.

Kinate, Metabotropic Receptors

These are the glutamate receptors, Kinate controls the sodium channels.

While Metabotropic receptors are also glutamate receptors that controls the calcium channels.

Blood Brain Barrier

A Barrier produced by the astrocytes and cells in the walls of the capillaries in in the brain. This barrier permits passage of only certain substances.

Hy-polarization, Depolarization

Hy-polarization means an increase in the Membrane potential of a cell relative to the normal resting potential.
Depolarization means Reduction (towards zero) of Membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential.

Ionotropic, Metabotropic Receptors

Ionotropic is a receptor that contains a binding site for a Neurotransmitter and an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attacked to the binding site.

Metabotropic is a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter activates an Enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel else where in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attach to the binding site.

Antagonis, Agonist

Both concepts are associated with the Psycho-pharmacology.
Antagonis is defined as the drug which oppose or inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the post synaptic cell.

Agonist is defined as a drug that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the post synaptic cell.

Grand Mal, Petit Mal Epilepsy / Seizure

Both are the types of Generalized Epilepsy.
Grand mal epilepsy is also called Tonic Clonic epilepsy.This type of epilepsy is consisted two phases tonic and clonic and characterized by convulsion in limbs, Lose control over body, disturbance of motor system of brain and rolling of eye ball.

Petit mal is also called absence and Myocronic epilepsy and is associated with the children of 4 to 14 years old. It is consisted on two types 1 Typical 2 A-typical absence. It is characterized by the following symptoms like fluttering of eyelids, stereo type hand movement and myocronic jerks etc.

Placebo Effect

An observed effect on behavior that is caused by a placebo which means innocuos substance without a specific physiological effect. In simple a preparation with no medical value and no pharmacological effects.This is widely used and to be found in situations having nothing to do with the study of drugs.

Intra-cellular, Extra-cellular Fluids and Inter Stitial Fluid

The fluid which is found within the cell.According to experts round 80 - 70% water is found in the shape of fluid in the cell.This fluid is called Intra-cellular fluid.

The Extra-cellular fluid is the fluid which is found outside the cell.

Inter Stitial fluids e.g blood plasma and CSF (Cerebro Spinal Fluid). The Inter-stitial fluid is fluid that baths the cells of the body, filling the space between the cell of the body.

Spinal, Cranial Nerves

The nerves which are attached with the Spinal Cord, these nerves begin at the junction of the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord.These nerves are consisted on 31 pairs.

The Cranial nerves are the nerves of PNS and are attached with the cranium or brain and consisted on 12 pairs among there pairs 10th pair which is called Vagus is the longest pair which is attached with Abdominal functions.

Ispilateral

It means located on the same side of the body as the point of reference.

Tectum, Tegmentum

Tectum means the Roof of the mid brain consisted on the inferior and superior colliculie.
the Tegmentum is the portion of the mid brain beneath the tectum containing the Red Nucleus.Reticular formation, Substabtia Nigra and Pareiaqueductal gray matter.

Auto Receptors, Auto Topagnosia

Auto receptors are the receptors molecules located on a neuron that respond to the Neurotransmitter that neuron itself secret.Some auto receptors are located on the Presynaptic Membrane.

Auto Topagnosia mean an inability to name body parts or to identify body parts that another person names.

Obstructive Hydro Cephlllus (Waterhead)

A condition in which all or some of the brain's Ventricles are enlarged caused by an Obstruction that impedes the normal flow of CSF.

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Mind Study